Expansion and territory
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Sunday, 31 August 2014
Company rule in India
British India and the Native States
India during the British Raj was made up of two types of territory: British India and the Native States (or Princely States).[15] In its Interpretation Act 1889, the British Parliament adopted the following definitions:
(4.) The expression "British India" shall mean all territories and places within Her Majesty's dominions which are for the time being governed by Her Majesty through the Governor-General of India or through any governor or other officer subordinate to the Governor-General of India.
(5.) The expression "India" shall mean British India together with any
A Brief History of the Game
Football’s Early Beginnings
Football (as well
as rugby and soccer) are believed to have descended from the ancient Greek game
of harpaston. Harpaston
is mentioned frequently in classical literature, where it is often referred to
as a “very rough and brutal game“. The
rules of this ancient sport were quite simple:
Points were awarded when a player would cross a goal line by either
kicking the ball, running with it across the goal line, or throwing it across
the line to another player. The other team’s objective was simply to stop them
by any means possible. There was no
specific field length, no side line boundaries, no specified number of
players per team, only a glaring lack of rules.
History of football in England
The History of English football is a long and detailed one, as it is not only the national sport[citation needed] but England was where the game was developed and codified. The modern global game of Football
was first codified in 1863 in London. The impetus for this was to unify
English public school and university football games. There is evidence
for refereed, team football games being played in English schools since
at least 1581. An account of an exclusively kicking football game from Nottinghamshire
in the 15th century bears similarity to football. England can boast the
earliest ever documented use of the English word "football" (1409) and
the earliest reference to the sport in French (1314). England is home to
the oldest football clubs in the world (dating from at least 1857), the
world's oldest competition (the FA Cup
founded in 1871) and the first ever football league (1888). For these
reasons England is considered the home of the game of
Lake Winnipesaukee mystery stone
The mystery stone from Lake Winnipesaukee is an alleged out-of-place artifact
(OOPArt), reportedly found in 1872 while workers were digging a hole
for a fence post. It is a carved stone about 4 inches (100 mm) long and
2.5 inches (64 mm) thick, dark and egg-shaped, bearing a variety of
symbols. The stone's age, purpose, and origin are unknown. Seneca Ladd, a
Meredith
businessman who hired the workers, was given credit for the discovery.
Upon Ladd's death in 1892, the stone passed to one of his daughters, who
donated it to the New Hampshire Historical Society in 1927. The stone is currently on exhibit at the Museum of New Hampshire History.[1]
King's Caves
Along the Western shore of Arran, are a series of natural caves in
the sandstone rock. One of the caves is said to have been the refuge in
which Robert the Bruce had his famed encounter with a spider.
According
to legend Bruce was dejected, and on the verge of giving up trying to
gain independence for Scotland from the English. While hiding out in a
cave he observed a spider on one of the cave walls. The spider span a
web only to have it collapse from the slippery stone.
Again and again the spider built its home, never giving up no matter how many times it failed, and eventually the web held. Bruce was said to have been inspired to try and try again against his foes and finally led the Scots to victory at Bannockburn.
Historically
the caves may have been inh
According
to legend Bruce was dejected, and on the verge of giving up trying to
gain independence for Scotland from the English. While hiding out in a
cave he observed a spider on one of the cave walls. The spider span a
web only to have it collapse from the slippery stone.Again and again the spider built its home, never giving up no matter how many times it failed, and eventually the web held. Bruce was said to have been inspired to try and try again against his foes and finally led the Scots to victory at Bannockburn.
Historically
the caves may have been inhForestville Mystery Cave State Park
Mystery Cave
The park is in the Driftless Area, noted for its karst topography, which includes sinkholes and caves. The park itself is about 5 miles (8.0 km) away from Mystery Cave and is approximately 3,170 acres (12.8 km2), with camping, interpretive programs, and hiking, horseback, and cross-country skiing trails. The park is also noted for its cold water streams and excellent trout fishing. The cave includes stalactites, stalagmites, and underground pools, and is a constant 48 °F (9 °C) underground. There are over 13 miles (21 km) of passages in 2 rock layers; the cave is currently being re-surveyed and mapped by volunteers.London Bridge
| AD | 43 50 52 60 80 90+ |
Romans invade and conquer Britain Romans found Londinium First Roman timber bridge is built. Boudicca, Queen of the Iceni, burns Londonium to the ground Romans rebuild Londinium and the timber bridge Earliest date for building of permanent bridge |
| 100 | 100 102 196 |
Londinium with a bridge, becomes capital of Roman province of Britain. Forum/basilica built with a permanent bridge built or in place Some Roman legions withdrawn |
| 200 | 208 259 287 |
Visit of Emperor Septimus Severus Temporary independent "Gallic Empire" set up, including Britain Carausius proclaims an independent Britain |
| 300 | 306 367 369 |
Constantine proclaimed Roman Emperor in Britain Combined attack on Britain by Picts, Scots and Saxons Theodosius restores order in Britain |
| 400 | 407 410 467 |
Romans abandon London. Last legions withdrawn Bridge likely to be no longer in use or already officially dismantled Sack of Rome. Emperor tells Britons to arrange for their own defence Last appeal to Rome for help from Britain - London largely abandoned |
| 500 | 500+ 597 |
"Dark Ages", with much of Britain already taken over by the Saxons St Augustine lands in Kent to re-establish Christianity |
| 600 | 600+ 604 |
London area and Southwark bank rely on ferry for connection
Bishop of London appointed for a short period |
| 700 | 730 793 |
London - "A mart of many peoples coming by land and sea" - Bede Viking attacks on Britain start |
| 800 | 842
872 886 |
Inhabitants from the The Anglo-Saxon settlement known as "Lundenwic" move into old walled area for safety.
Earliest date for the rebuilding of a London Bridge
London occupied by the Vikings King Alfred recaptures London from the Danes and restores the town |
| 900 | 979 984 994 |
Reference to a bridge at London in Billingsgate toll records Reference to a miscreant being thrown from London Bridge Viking battle recorded at the bridge with attacking Danish King, Svein |
| 1000 | 1000 1009 1014 1016 1066 1087 1097 |
Tolls recorded as being collected at London Bridge London mentioned in Anglo-Saxon Chronicles on Norse raiding parties To regain his capital from King Canute, Aethelred is aided by King Olaf who pulls down London Bridge - London Bridge is Broken/Falling Down Canute digs a ditch round London Bridge to defeat Edmund upstream Battle of Hastings brings William the Conqueror to London William Rufus, son of William the Conqueror rebuilds London Bridge London Bridge carried away by floods. Local forced labour used to rebuild it |
| 1100 | 1122 1135 1163 1176 1189+ |
London Bridge recorded as possessing revenue producing lands London and the bridge destroyed in major fire. All then rebuilt Last wooden bridge built under direction of Peter De Colechurch Peter de Colechurch starts to build the stone London Bridge Henry II imposes a tax on wool for its construction Richard the Lionheart's war costs delay the completion of the bridge King John gives land to the City to produce more revenues for the bridge |
| 1200 | 1201 1205 1209 1212 1216 1243 1249 1252 1257 1258 1263 1265 1267 1269 1270 1281 1282 |
King John decrees that houses should be erected on the bridge for rent Peter de Colechurch dies and is buried in the new crypt of the bridge chapel London Bridge is completed with the gates, chapel and houses Major fire in Southwark destroys southern houses on the bridge Louis, Dauphin of France crosses the bridge as guests of the Barons First mention of Bridge House as the administrative centre for the bridge Henry III takes over the bridge's revenue to pay for his wars Henry gives grant of protection to the Brethren of the Bridge for funds  First mention of the drawbridge City establishes its control over the whole length of the bridge Unpopular Queen Eleanor's barge pelted by citizens on the bridge Simon de Montfort occupies Southwark. Drawbridge raised against him Bridge funds administered by Brethren of the Chapel of St Thomas
Earl of Gloucester occupies Southwark, and gains the City and its gates King Henry again grants Queen Eleanor custody of the bridge Bridge collapsing from lack of repair as Queen Eleanor misuses funds
Edward I gives back control of the bridge to the City Five arches of the bridge collapse in winter. London Bridge is Falling Down Edward appoints Bridge Wardens and gives the bridge a charter and tolls |
| 1300 | 1305
1309 1348 1357 1358 1381 1384+ 1388 1390 |
First head displayed on the bridge, that of William Wallace
Bridge damaged by heavy ice on the Thames Black Death kills many in London Edward, the Black Prince crosses bridge with captive, Jean II of France Bridge Wardens accounts record 138 rent-paying shops on the bridge Wat Tyler leads Peasant's Revolt. Tyler slain and head placed on the bridge Structure of London Bridge rebuilt over 13 years including a new chapel New drawbridge constructed Joust on the bridge between Lord Welles and Sir David de Lindsay |
| 1400 | 1415 1421 1425 1426+ 1437 1442 1445 1450 1460+ 1463 1485 1497 |
Henry V, victor of Agincourt crosses the bridge with captive Duke of Orleans
Henry V received on bridge with his new Queen, Catherine of France One of the arches cracks. Iron-shod carts banned from bridge New Drawbridge Gate is built Great Stone Gate collapses with two arches. Extensive bridge repairs follow A new drawbridge is begun Reception on bridge for bride of Henry VI, Margaret of Anjou. Jack Cade rebels fight on the bridge and part of it is burned Rebels defeated and Jack Cade's head placed on the bridge Start of bridge being totally rebuilt arch-by-arch over 30 years Common Council orders drawbridge to be raised for all ships Kent uprising sets fire to new Great Stone Gate and 13 houses Uprising defeated and leader, Thomas Fauconberg's head placed on bridge Common Council allows decayed drawbridge to be raised only in defence Hydraulic water pumps first installed on bridge to provide drinking water |
| 1500 | 1500 1501 1509 1530 1535 1538 1539 1549 1553 1554 1577 1580 1582 1588 1591 1594 |
First picture of London Bridge painted as part of Duke of Orleans manuscript
Reception for Catherine of Aragon, bride of Arthur, elder brother of Henry VIII Funeral procession along the bridge for Henry VII Statute of Bridges introduced for repair of all bridges throughout the kingdom Henry VIII has Thomas More's/Bishop Fisher's head placed on the bridge Henry VIII orders chapel to cease to be dedicated to Thomas a Becket Chapel images of Thomas a Becket painted over. Becomes Lady Chapel Chapel defaced inside and ordered to be changed into a "dwelling house" Chapel is turned into a shop and residence, then into a warehouse Sir Thomas Wyatt's rebellion over Queen Mary's betrothal to Philip of Spain Demolition of the Drawbridge Gate begins, making way for Nonesuch House "House of Many Windows" also built towards southern end City agrees to Peter Morris installing waterworks at northern end to pump water into the City Law passed limiting shop counters on the bridge to project only 4" (100mm) Spanish Armada defeated. Captured banners displayed on Great Stone Gate Corn mills erected at Southwark end of bridge Van den Wyngaerde's detailed view of London Bridge published |
| 1600 | 1605 1616 1624 1633 1639 1641 1645+ 1647 1666 1672 1676 1678 1683 1684 1685 |
Guy Fawkes and fellow plotters' heads placed on the bridge after the Gunpowder Plot to blow up Parliament Visscher's view of London Bridge published John Norden's view of London Bridge published Fire at City end destroys a third of houses at that end of the bridge One house at the City end rebuilt Royal Barge of Queen Henrietta overturns while "shooting the bridge". Queen's Lady of Bedchamber drowns A complete new block built at the City end In Civil War, gates of London Bridge opened to Cromwell's New Model Army who march with General Fairfax into London. Great Fire of London consumes City end block and waterwheels but spares most of the bridge Fixed Drawbridge rebuilt Serious fire in Southwark William Stayley is last head to be displayed on the bridge Destroyed houses at City end of bridge rebuilt Famous "Frost Fair" held on the frozen Thames. Visited by Charles II Many houses taken down and rebuilt to widen street to 20ft, (6m), except those adjoining the old Nonesuch House where gateway height is increased |
| 1700 | 1722 1725 1727+ 1745 1750 1751+ 1756 1757+ 1757 1758 1759 1761 1762 1763 1779 1782 1786+ 1799 |
Lord Mayor orders bridge traffic to kept to the left. Tolls introduced. Fixed drawbridge rebuilt again Fire destroys all the Southwark end houses over the first two arches including the Great Stone Gate. Great Stone Gate demolished. Roadway widened to 18ft (5.5m) Five waterwheels working. New block by George Dance, at the City end, the last houses to be built on the bridge Westminster bridge opens, the first of other new bridges over the Thames Stationers occupy the remains of the old chapel in the encasing building, called Chapel House, with paper stored in the old undercroft Act of Parliament authorises the removal of all the houses on the bridge Demolition of the houses starts Temporary wooden bridge erected alongside. Nonesuch House pulled down Temporary wooden bridge burnt down New "Great Arch" formed in bridge by complete removal of a central pier. Bridge renewed with widening to 46ft (14m), with new end arches and decorative piers, balustrades and alcoves for pedestrians Great Stone Gate demolished.The Royal Coat of Arms from it is rebuilt into the public house in Newcomen Street Last house tenacy on bridge expires and all houses fully cleared New footway at City end opened though tower of St Magnus-the-Martyr Rebuilt Waterworks at City end burnt Bridge Tolls abolished and traffic increases Waterwheels and pumps rebuilt London Bridge fully measured and accurately drawn for the first time by George Dance the Younger |
| 1800 | 1800 1813 1817 1819 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1827 1831 1832 1839 1858 1873 1879 1894 |
First proposals for a new bridge put forward
Heavy ice on Thames. Bridge damaged. Last Frost Fair John Rennie's Waterloo Bridge opens John Rennie's Southwark Bridge opens Committee for New Bridge set up and competition organised. Results overuled and a design by John Rennie selected Act passed to remove the old bridge's waterwheels Royal Assent for Act for the Rebuilding of London Bridge 15th March - First piles driven for coffer dam(s) for construction of Sir John Rennie's new London Bridge 15th June - Foundation Stone laid in presence of Duke of York 4th August - First arch on Southwark side completed 1st August - Bridge officially opened by William IV and Queen Adelaide During demolition of old bridge, Peter de Colechurch's bones found in old chapel undercroft . Presumably destroyed with the rest London Bridge Station first opens and railway use growth starts with the first "commuters" using the bridge to go over to the City Chelsea Bridge opens Albert Bridge opens Lambeth Bridge opens Tower Bridge opens |
| 1900 | 1902 1940+ 1967 1967+ 1968+ 1971 1973 1996 |
Bridge is widened with corbels and new balustrade
London Bridge goes through WWII without damage Corporation of London is empowered by London Bridge Act to build a new London Bridge Sir John Rennie's bridge dismantled and replaced section-by-section with a new concrete structure Old bridge sold to the McCulloch Oil Corporation and transported in parts to Arizona to be rebuilt at Lake Havasu City. Foundation stone laid of the re-constructed bridge Sir John Rennie's bridge completely re-assembled at Lake Havasu City and officially opened by Lord Mayor New London Bridge officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II Museum on the history of London Bridge first proposed |
| 2000 | 2000 2001 2006 2009 2012 |
London Bridge Museum & Education Trust formed
Trust educational website first goes out over the internet Initial educational material completed as brochures, posters, DVD-Rom, lecture CD Scheduled date for the opening of proto-London Bridge Museum, the 800th Anniversary of the Peter de Colechurch bridge in 1209 Intended opening of the full London Bridge Museum , the year of the Olympic Games in London |
Location
The abutments of modern London Bridge rest several metres above natural embankments of gravel, sand and clay. From the late Neolithic era the southern embankment formed a natural causeway above the surrounding swamp and marsh of the river's estuary; the northern ascended to higher ground at the present site of Cornhill. Between the embankments, the River Thames could have been crossed by ford when the tide was low, or ferry when it was high. Both embankments, particularly the northern, would have offered stable beachheads for boat traffic up and downstream – the Thames and its estuary were a major inland and Continental trade route from at least the 9th century BC.[4] There is archaeological evidence for scattered Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age settlement nearby, but until a bridge was built there, London did not exist.[5] Two ancient fords were in use a few miles upstream, beyond the river's upper tidal reach. They were aligned with the course of Watling Street and led into the heartlands of the Catuvellauni, who at the time of Caesar's invasion of 54 BC were Britain's most powerful tribe. Some time before Claudius' conquest of AD 43, power shifted to the Trinovantes, who held the region northeast of the Thames estuary from a capital at Camulodunum. The first London Bridge was built by the Roman military as part of a road-building programme to help consolidate their conquest.[6]Roman bridges
The first bridge was probably a Roman military pontoon type, giving a rapid overland shortcut to Camulodunum from the southern and Kentish ports, along the Roman roads of Stane Street and Watling Street (the A2). The Trinovantes submitted to Rome; a major colonia was imposed on Camulodunum, which became capital city of the new Roman province of Britannia. Around AD 55, this temporary bridge was replaced by a permanent timber piled bridge, maintained and guarded by a small garrison. On the relatively high, dry ground at the northern end of the bridge, a small, opportunistic trading and shipping settlement took root, and grew into the town of Londinium.[7] A smaller settlement developed at the southern end of the bridge, in the area now known as Southwark. The bridge was probably destroyed along with the town in the Boudican revolt (60 AD), but both were rebuilt and Londinium became the administrative and mercantile capital of Roman Britain. The upstream fords and ferries remained in use but the bridge offered uninterrupted, mass movement of foot, horse, and wheeled traffic across the Thames, linking four major arterial road systems north of the Thames with four to the south. Just downstream of the bridge were substantial quays and depots, convenient to seagoing trade between Britain and the rest of the Roman Empire.[8][9]Early medieval bridges
With the end of Roman rule in Britain in the early 5th century, Londinium was gradually abandoned and the bridge fell into disrepair. In the Saxon period, the river became a boundary between the emergent, mutually hostile kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex. By the late 9th century, Danish invasions prompted at least a partial reoccupation of London by the Saxons; the bridge may have been rebuilt around 990 under the Saxon king Æthelred the Unready to hasten his troop movements against Sweyn Forkbeard, father of Cnut the Great. A skaldic tradition describes the bridge's destruction in 1014 by Æthelred's ally Olaf,[10] to divide the Danish forces who held both the walled City of London and Southwark. The earliest contemporary written reference to a Saxon bridge is c.1016 when chroniclers mention how Cnut's ships by-passed the crossing, during his war to regain the throne from Edmund Ironside.Following the Norman conquest of England in 1066, King William I rebuilt the bridge. The London tornado of 1091 destroyed it, also damaging St Mary-le-Bow.[11] It was repaired or replaced by King William II, destroyed by fire in 1136, and rebuilt in the reign of Stephen. Henry II created a monastic guild, the "Brethren of the Bridge", to oversee all work on London Bridge, and in 1163 its Warden, Peter of Colechurch, supervised the bridge's last rebuilding in timber.
"Old" (medieval) London Bridge
An engraving by Claes Visscher showing Old London Bridge in 1616, with what is now Southwark Cathedral in the foreground. The spiked heads of executed criminals can be seen above the Southwark gatehouse.
The bridge was some 26 feet (8 m) wide, and about 800–900 feet (240–270 m) long, supported by 19 irregularly spaced arches, founded on "starlings" set into the river-bed. It had a drawbridge for the passage of tall ships up-river, and defensive gatehouses at both ends. By 1358, it was already crowded, with 138 shops. At least one two-entranced, multi-seated public latrine overhung the bridge parapets and discharged into the river below; so did an unknown number of private latrines reserved for Bridge householders or shopkeepers and bridge officials. In 1382-3 a new latrine was made (or an old one replaced) at considerable cost, at the northern end of the bridge.[15]
The buildings on London Bridge were a major fire hazard and increased the load on its arches, several of which had to be rebuilt over the centuries. In 1212, perhaps the greatest of the early fires of London broke out on both ends of the bridge simultaneously, trapping many people in the middle. Houses on the bridge were burnt during Wat Tyler's Peasants' Revolt in 1381 and during Jack Cade's rebellion in 1450. A major fire of 1633 that destroyed the northern third of the bridge formed a firebreak that prevented further damage to the bridge during the Great Fire of London (1666).
Detail of Old London Bridge on the 1632 oil painting "View of London Bridge" by Claude de Jongh.
This pedestrian alcove, now in Victoria Park, Tower Hamlets is one of the surviving fragments of the old London Bridge that was demolished in 1831.
| “ | On the south is a bridge of stone eight hundred feet in length, of wonderful work; it is supported upon twenty piers of square stone, sixty feet high and thirty broad, joined by arches of about twenty feet diameter. The whole is covered on each side with houses so disposed as to have the appearance of a continued street, not at all of a bridge. Upon this is built a tower, on whose top the heads of such as have been executed for high treason are placed on iron spikes: we counted above thirty. | ” |
By 1722 congestion was becoming so serious that the Lord Mayor decreed that "all carts, coaches and other carriages coming out of Southwark into this City do keep all along the west side of the said bridge: and all carts and coaches going out of the City do keep along the east side of the said bridge." This has been suggested as one possible origin for the practice of traffic in Britain driving on the left.[21]
In 1758–62, all houses and shops on the bridge were demolished through Act of Parliament. The two centre arches were replaced by a single wider span to improve navigation on the river.
"New" (19th-century) London Bridge
New London Bridge in the late 19th century
Spare corbels for London bridge left behind at Swelltor Quarry on Dartmoor, Devon. They lie beside the former narrow gauge Plymouth and Dartmoor Railway.
Rennie's bridge was 928 feet (283 m) long and 49 feet (15 m) wide, constructed from Haytor granite. The official opening took place on 1 August 1831; King William IV and Queen Adelaide attended a banquet in a pavilion erected on the bridge.
In 1896 the bridge was the busiest point in London, and one of its most congested; 8,000 pedestrians and 900 vehicles crossed every hour.[1] It was widened by 13 feet, using granite corbels.[24] Subsequent surveys showed that the bridge was sinking an inch (about 2.5 cm) every eight years, and by 1924 the east side had sunk some three to four inches (about 9 cm) lower than the west side. The bridge would have to be removed and replaced.
Sale of Rennie's London bridge to Robert McCulloch
Main article: London Bridge (Lake Havasu City)
Rennie's "New" London Bridge during its reconstruction at Lake Havasu City, Arizona March 1971
Rennie's "New" London Bridge rebuilt, Lake Havasu City, 2003
The London Bridge that was rebuilt at Lake Havasu City consists of a frame with stones from Rennie's London Bridge used as cladding. The cladding stones used are 150 to 200 millimetres (6 to 8 inches) thick. Some of the stones from the bridge were left behind at Merrivale Quarry at Princetown in Devon.[26] When Merrivale Quarry was abandoned and flooded in 2003, some of the remaining stones were sold in an online auction.[27]
Modern London Bridge
The current London Bridge, pictured in January 1987. The skyscraper in the background is the National Westminster Tower, opened six years prior.
In 1984, the British warship HMS Jupiter collided with London Bridge, causing significant damage to both ship and bridge. On Remembrance Day 2004, various London bridges were furnished with red lighting as part of a night-time flight along the river by wartime aircraft. London Bridge was the one bridge not subsequently stripped of the illuminations, which are switched on at night. The current London Bridge is often shown in films, news and documentaries showing the throng of commuters journeying to work into the City from London Bridge Station (south to north). A recent example of this is actor Hugh Grant crossing the bridge north to south during the morning rush hour, in the 2002 film About a Boy. On Saturday 11 July 2009, as part of the annual Lord Mayor's charity Appeal and to mark the 800th anniversary of Old London Bridge's completion in the reign of King John, the Lord Mayor and Freemen of the City drove a flock of sheep across the bridge, supposedly by ancient right.[31] In vaults below the southern abutment of the bridge is 'The London Bridge Experience.'
Transport
The nearest London Underground stations are Monument and London Bridge. They are respectively at the northern and southern ends of the bridge. London Bridge station is also served by National Rail services.London bridge in literature and popular culture
The nursery rhyme "London Bridge Is Falling Down" has been speculatively connected to several of the bridge's historic collapses. Rennie's Old London Bridge is also a prominent landmark in T.S. Eliot's masterpiece "The Waste Land", where he compares the shuffling commuters across London Bridge to the hell-bound souls of Dante's Limbo..Modern London Bridge Gallery
-
The central arch of the current London Bridge.
-
Close up of arch and pier.
-
Panoramic photograph of the Thames at night, with London Bridge to right.
-
London Bridge viewed from Southwark on the South Bank.
-
The City of London viewed from the southern end of London Bridge.
-
The City beyond London Bridge.
-
Evening commuters crossing London Bridge towards Southwark.
-
The northern end of London bridge illuminated at night.
|
London did not exist in A.D. 43
when the invading Roman army marched inland - with only the river Thames
to be crossed. The first bridge to be made was most probably erected
near the site of the later Mediaeval bridge. Around AD80, the first London Bridge was built from the Southwark settlement and at its northern end a large town grew up. This was to become London. |
| After the Romans left Britain, the bridge,
which was most likely built of timber, would have fallen into
disrepair to be replaced by a ferry and intermittent timber
bridges built during Saxon Times. The next record of a bridge being in place was in 984 when a report was recorded of the punishment by the Thames of a widow and her son who had driven pins into the image of a man. The woman was taken to London Bridge and drowned while her son escaped. The bridge at this time was built out of wood. |
 |
Disneyland's History
One day Walt Disney had a vision. It was a vision of a place
where children and parents could have fun together. The more
Walt dreamed of a "magical park," the more imaginative
and elaborate it became.
The original plans for the park were on 8 acres next to the Burbank studios where his employees and families could go to relax. Although, World War II put those plans on hold. During the war, Walt had time to come up with new ideas, and creations for his magical park. It was soon clear that 8 acres wouldn't be enough.
The original plans for the park were on 8 acres next to the Burbank studios where his employees and families could go to relax. Although, World War II put those plans on hold. During the war, Walt had time to come up with new ideas, and creations for his magical park. It was soon clear that 8 acres wouldn't be enough.
HYDERABAD
 |
Hyderabad the capital of Telangana,
founded in the year 1591 by Mohammed Quli Qutub Shah, the fifth
sultan of Qutb Shahi dynasty, offers
a fascinating panorama of the
past, with richly mixed cultural and historical tradition spanning
over 400 years. It is one of the fastest growing cities of India
and has emerged as a strong industrial, commercial, technology center,
gives a picture of glimpses of past splenders and the legacy of
its old history.The history of Hyderabad begins with the establishment
of the Qutb Shahi dynasty. Quli Qutb Shah seized the reins of power
from the Bahamani kingdom in 1512 and established the fortress city
of Golconda. Inadequacy of water, and frequent epidemics of plague
and cholera persuaded Mohammed Quli Qutub Shah to venture outward
to establish new city with the Charminar at its centre and with
four great roads fanning out four cardinal directions. Hyderabad's
fame, strategic location and Golconda's legendary wealth attracted
Aurangazeb who captured Golconda after a long seize in 1687. |
After this defeat the importance
of Hyderabad declined and the city fell into partial
20TH CENTURY MATHEMATICS
The 20th Century continued the trend of the 19th
towards increasing generalization and abstraction in mathematics, in
which the notion of axioms as “self-evident truths” was largely
discarded in favour of an emphasis on such logical concepts as
consistency and completeness.
17th 18th 19th CENTURY MATHEMATICS
MATHEMATICS
In the wake of the Renaissance, the 17th Century saw an unprecedented
explosion of mathematical and scientific ideas across Europe, a period
sometimes called the Age of Reason. Hard on the heels of the “Copernican
Revolution” of Nicolaus Copernicus in the 16th Century, scientists
like Galileo Galilei, Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler were making
equally revolutionary discoveries in the exploration of the Solar
system, leading to Kepler’s formulation of mathematical laws of
planetary motion.
The invention of the logarithm in the early 17th Century by John Napier (and later improved by Napier and Henry Briggs) contributed to the advance of science, astronomy and mathematics by making some difficult calculations relatively easy. It was one of the most significant mathematical developments of the age, and 17th Century physicists like Kepler and Newton could never have performed the complex calculatons needed for their innovations without it. The French astronomer and
 |
 Logarithms were invented by John Napier, early in the 17th Century |
The invention of the logarithm in the early 17th Century by John Napier (and later improved by Napier and Henry Briggs) contributed to the advance of science, astronomy and mathematics by making some difficult calculations relatively easy. It was one of the most significant mathematical developments of the age, and 17th Century physicists like Kepler and Newton could never have performed the complex calculatons needed for their innovations without it. The French astronomer and
MEDIEVAL MATHEMATICS
MATHEMATICS
During the centuries in which the Chinese, Indian and Islamic
mathematicians had been in the ascendancy, Europe had fallen into the
Dark Ages, in which science, mathematics and almost all intellectual
endeavour stagnated. Scholastic scholars only valued studies in the
humanities, such as philosophy and literature, and spent much of their
energies quarrelling over subtle subjects in metaphysics and theology,
such as "How many angels can stand on the point of a needle?"
From the 4th to 12th Centuries, European knowledge and study of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music was limited mainly to Boethius’ translations of some of the works of ancient Greek masters such as Nicomachus and Euclid.
 |
|
Medieval abacus, based on the Roman/Greek model |
From the 4th to 12th Centuries, European knowledge and study of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music was limited mainly to Boethius’ translations of some of the works of ancient Greek masters such as Nicomachus and Euclid.
INDIAN MATHEMATICS
MATHEMATICS
Despite developing quite independently of Chinese (and probably also of Babylonian mathematics), some very advanced mathematical discoveries were made at a very early time in India.
Mantras from the early Vedic period (before 1000 BC) invoke powers of ten from a hundred all the way up to a trillion, and provide evidence of the use of
 |
|
The evolution of Hindu-Arabic numerals |
Mantras from the early Vedic period (before 1000 BC) invoke powers of ten from a hundred all the way up to a trillion, and provide evidence of the use of
ROMAN MATHEMATICS
By the middle of the 1st Century BC, the Roman had tightened their grip on the old Greek and Hellenistic empires, and the mathematical revolution of the Greeks
ground to halt. Despite all their advances in other respects, no
mathematical innovations occurred under the Roman Empire and Republic,
and there were no mathematicians of note. The Romans had no use for pure
mathematics, only for its practical applications, and the Christian
regime that followed it (after Christianity became the official religion
of the Roman empire) even less so.
Roman numerals are well known today, and were the dominant number system for trade
and administration in most of Europe for the best part of a millennium.
It was decimal (base 10) system but not directly positional, and did
not include a zero, so that, for arithmetic and mathematical purposes,
it was a clumsy and inefficient system. It was based on letters of the
Roman alphabet - I, V, X, L, C, D and M - combines to
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Roman arithmetic |
and administration in most of Europe for the best part of a millennium.
It was decimal (base 10) system but not directly positional, and did
not include a zero, so that, for arithmetic and mathematical purposes,
it was a clumsy and inefficient system. It was based on letters of the
Roman alphabet - I, V, X, L, C, D and M - combines to HELLENISTIC MATHEMATICS
By the 3rd Century
BC, in the wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great, mathematical
breakthroughs were also beginning to be made on the edges of the Greek
Hellenistic empire.
In particular, Alexandria in Egypt became a great centre of learning under the beneficent rule of the Ptolemies, and its famous Library soon gained a reputation to rival that of the Athenian Academy. The patrons of the Library were arguably the first professional scientists, paid for their devotion to research. Among the best known and most influential mathematicians who studied and taught at Alexandria were Euclid, Archimedes, Eratosthenes, Heron, Menelaus and Diophantus.
In particular, Alexandria in Egypt became a great centre of learning under the beneficent rule of the Ptolemies, and its famous Library soon gained a reputation to rival that of the Athenian Academy. The patrons of the Library were arguably the first professional scientists, paid for their devotion to research. Among the best known and most influential mathematicians who studied and taught at Alexandria were Euclid, Archimedes, Eratosthenes, Heron, Menelaus and Diophantus.
GREEK MATHEMATICS
As the Greek empire began to spread its sphere of influence into Asia Minor, Mesopotamia
and beyond, the Greeks were smart enough to adopt and adapt useful
elements from the societies they conquered. This was as true of their
mathematics as anything else, and they adopted elements of mathematics
from both the Babylonians and the Egyptians.
But they soon started to make important contributions in their own
right and, for the first time, we can acknowledge contributions by
individuals. By the Hellenistic period, the Greeks had presided over one of the most dramatic and important revolutions in mathematical thought of all time.
EGYPTIAN MATHEMATICS
The early Egyptians
settled along the fertile Nile valley as early as about 6000 BC, and
they began to record the patterns of lunar phases and the seasons, both
for agricultural and religious reasons. The Pharaoh’s surveyors used
measurements based on body parts (a palm was the width of the hand, a
cubit the measurement from elbow to fingertips) to measure land and
buildings very early in Egyptian history, and a decimal numeric system
was developed based on our ten fingers. The oldest mathematical text
from ancient Egypt discovered so far, though, is the Moscow Papyrus,
which dates from the Egyptian Middle Kingdom around 2000 - 1800 BC
SUMERIAN/BABYLONIAN MATHEMATICS
Sumer (a region of
Mesopotamia, modern-day Iraq) was the birthplace of writing, the wheel,
agriculture, the arch, the plow, irrigation and many other innovations,
and is often referred to as the Cradle of Civilization. The Sumerians
developed the earliest known writing system - a pictographic writing
system known as cuneiform script, using wedge-shaped characters
inscribed on baked clay tablets - and this has meant that we actually
have more knowledge of ancient Sumerian and Babylonian mathematics than
of early Egyptian mathematics. Indeed, we even have what appear to school exercises in arithmetic and geometric problems.
PREHISTORIC MATHEMATICS
Our prehistoric
ancestors would have had a general sensibility about amounts, and would
have instinctively known the difference between, say, one and two
antelopes. But the intellectual leap from the concrete idea of two
things to the invention of a symbol or word for the abstract idea of
"two" took many ages to come about.
Even today, there are isolated hunter-gatherer tribes in Amazonia which only have words for "one", "two" and "many", and others which only have words for numbers up to five. In the absence of settled agriculture and trade, there is little need for a formal system of numbers.
Even today, there are isolated hunter-gatherer tribes in Amazonia which only have words for "one", "two" and "many", and others which only have words for numbers up to five. In the absence of settled agriculture and trade
, there is little need for a formal system of numbers.
THE STORY OF MATHEMATICS
Follow the story as it unfolds in this series of linked sections, like the chapters of a book. Read the human stories behind the innovations, and how they made - and sometimes destroyed - the men and women who devoted their lives to the Story of Mathematics.
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