Prehistory and Roman era
Roman glass found in Bosanski Novi from 2nd century
Main article: Early history of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bosnia has been inhabited at least since Neolithic times. In the late Bronze Age, the Neolithic population was replaced by more warlike Indo-European tribes known as the Illyrians. Celtic
migrations in the 4th and 3rd century BCE displaced many Illyrian
tribes from their former lands, but some Celtic and Illyrian tribes
mixed.[1]
Concrete historical evidence for this period is scarce, but overall it
appears that the region was populated by a number of different peoples
speaking distinct languages.[1]Conflict between the Illyrians and Romans started in 229 BCE, but Rome wouldn't complete its annexation of the region until 9 CE. In the Roman period, Latin-speaking settlers from all over the Roman empire settled among the Illyrians and Roman soldiers were encouraged to retire in the region.
Christianity had already arrived in the region by the end of the 1st century, and numerous artifacts and objects from the time testify to this. Following events from the years 337 and 395 when the Empire split, Dalmatia and Pannonia were included in the Western Roman Empire. The region was conquered by the Ostrogoths in 455, and further exchanged hands between the Alans and Huns in the years to follow.
Middle Ages
Main article: Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Middle Ages
By the 6th century, Emperor Justinian had re-conquered the area for the Byzantine Empire. The Slavs, a migratory people from southeastern Europe, were allied by the Eurasian Avars
in the 6th century, and together they invaded the Eastern Roman Empire
in the 6th and 7th centuries, settling in what is now Bosnia and
Herzegovina and the surrounding lands.[1] More South Slavs came in a second wave, and according to some scholars were invited by Emperor Heraclius to drive the Avars from Dalmatia.[1]Modern knowledge of Bosnia in the western Balkans during the Dark Ages is patchy. Upon the looter invasions by the Avars and Slavs from 6th-9th century, bringing Slavic languages, both probably gave way to feudalism only with the might by the Frankish penetrating into the region in the late 9th century (Bosnia probably originated as one such pre-feudal entity). It was also around this time that the Bosnians were Christianized. Bosnia, due to its geographic position and terrain, was probably one of the last areas to go through this process, which presumably originated from the urban centers along the Dalmatian coast.[1]
Banate of Bosnia
Main article: Banate of Bosnia
It is only from the 9th century that Frankish and Byzantine sources
begin to mention early Slavic polities in the region. In this regard,
the earliest widely acknowledged reference to Bosnia dates from the 10th
century De Administrando Imperio written by Byzantine emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus,[2] during which period Bosnia is briefly a part of the short-lived Serbian state of Časlav, after whose death in battle in about 960, much of Bosnia finds itself briefly incorporated into the Croatian state of Krešimir II. Shortly thereafter, in 997, Samuel of Bulgaria
marches through Bosnia and asserts his over-lordship in parts of it,
however, only to be defeated by the Byzantine Empire in 1018 which
annexes Bulgaria and asserts its suzerainty
in Bosnia. This lasted until later in the century when some parts of
Bosnia are briefly incorporated into Croatia and others into Duklja
from which the latter Bosnia appears to have seceded in about 1101,
upon which Bosnia's bans tried to rule for themselves. However, they all
too often found themselves in a tug-of-war between Hungary and the
Byzantine Empire. In the year of 1137, Hungary annexes most of Bosnia,
then briefly losing her in 1167 to the Byzantine Empire before regaining
her in 1180. Thus, prior to 1180 parts of Bosnia were briefly found in
Serb or Croat units, but neither neighbor had held the Bosnians long
enough to acquire their loyalty or to impose any serious claim to
Bosnia.[3]The first recorded Ban (viceroy) was Ban Borić, vassal to the Hungarian king. However, he was deposed when he backed the loser in a succession crisis over the Hungarian throne. In 1167, Byzantium reconquered Bosnia and emplaced their own vassal as Ban – Ban Kulin. However, this vassalage was largely nominal, and Bosnia had for all practical purposes made itself into an independent state under Kulin.[4] Ban Kulin presided over nearly three decades of peace and stability during which he strengthened the country's economy through treaties with Dubrovnik and Venice. His rule also marked the start of a controversy with the Bosnian Church, an indigenous Christian sect considered heretical by both the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches. In response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy in 1203. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulin's death in 1204, waning only after an unsuccessful invasion in 1254.
Kingdom of Bosnia
Territorial evolution of the Bosnian Kingdom
Main article: Kingdom of Bosnia
Bosnian history from then until the early 14th century was marked by the power struggle between the Šubić and Kotromanić families. This conflict came to an end in 1322, when Stjepan II Kotromanić
became ban. By the time of his death in 1353, he had succeeded in
annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and
parts of Dalmatia. He was succeeded by his nephew Tvrtko
who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family
strife, gained full control of the country in 1367. Under Tvrtko, Bosnia
grew in both size and power, finally becoming an independent kingdom in
1377. Following his death in 1391 however, Bosnia fell into a long
period of decline. The Ottoman Empire had already started its conquest of Europe and posed a major threat to the Balkans
throughout the first half of the 15th century. Finally, after decades
of political and social instability, Bosnia officially fell in 1463,
while resistance was active and fierce for a few more centuries. Southern regions of Bosnia, nowadays known as "Herzegovina" would follow in 1483, with a Hungarian-backed reinstated "Bosnian Kingdom" being the last to succumb in 1527.Ottoman Era (1463–1878)
Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1463–1878)
The Ottoman province of Bosnia.
The four centuries of Ottoman rule also had a drastic impact on Bosnia's population make-up, which changed several times as a result of the empire's conquests, frequent wars with European powers, migrations, and epidemics.[1] A native Slavic-speaking Muslim community emerged and eventually became the largest ethno-religious group[note 1][6] (mainly as a result of a gradually rising number of conversions to Islam),[7] while a significant number of Sephardi Jews arrived following their expulsion from Spain in the late 15th century. The Bosnian Christian communities also experienced major changes. The Bosnian Franciscans (and the Catholic population as a whole) were protected by official imperial decree, although on the ground these guarantees were often disregarded and their numbers dwindled.[1] The Orthodox community in Bosnia, initially confined to Herzegovina and southeastern Bosnia, spread throughout the country during this period and went on to experience relative prosperity until the 19th century.[1] Meanwhile, the native schismatic Bosnian Church disappeared altogether.
As the Ottoman Empire thrived and expanded into Central Europe, Bosnia was relieved of the pressures of being a frontier province and experienced a prolonged period of general welfare and prosperity.[7] A number of cities, such as Sarajevo and Mostar, were established and grew into major regional centers of trade and urban culture. Within these cities, various Sultans and governors financed the construction of many important works of Bosnian architecture (such as the Stari most and Gazi Husrev-beg's Mosque). Furthermore, numerous Bosnians played influential roles in the Ottoman Empire's cultural and political history during this time.[5] Bosnian soldiers formed a large component of the Ottoman ranks in the battles of Mohács and Krbava field, two decisive military victories, while numerous other Bosnians rose through the ranks of the Ottoman military bureaucracy to occupy the highest positions of power in the Empire, including admirals, generals, and grand viziers.[7] Many Bosnians also made a lasting impression on Ottoman culture, emerging as mystics, scholars, and celebrated poets in the Turkish, Arabic, and Persian languages.[7]
Bosnian Revolt Flag, 1831Occupation by Austria-Hungary (1878–1918)
Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1878–1918)
Religious confessions in the Austro-Hungarian region of Bosnia-Herzegovina and surroundings in 1901:
Orthodox
Catholic
Muslim
Mixed Orthodox and Catholic
Flag of Bosnia during Austro Hungarian administration (the country was formally under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire) (1878–1908)The idea of a unified South Slavic state (typically expected to be spearheaded by independent Serbia) became a popular political ideology in the region at this time, including in Bosnia and Herzegovina.[5] The Austro-Hungarian government's decision to formally annex Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908 (the Bosnian Crisis) added to a sense of urgency among these nationalists.[5] The political tensions caused by all this culminated on 28 June 1914, when Serb nationalist youth Gavrilo Princip assassinated the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, in Sarajevo; an event that proved to be the spark that set off World War I. Although 10% of the Bosniak population died serving in the armies or being killed by the various warring states, Bosnia and Herzegovina itself managed to escape the conflict relatively unscathed.[5]
Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918–41)
Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1918–41)
Following World War I, Bosnia was incorporated into the South Slav kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes
(soon renamed Yugoslavia). Political life in Bosnia at this time was
marked by two major trends: social and economic unrest over the Agrarian
Reform of 1918–19 manifested through mass colonization and property
confiscation;[8]
also formation of several political parties that frequently changed
coalitions and alliances with parties in other Yugoslav regions.[5]
The dominant ideological conflict of the Yugoslav state, between
Croatian regionalism and Serbian centralization, was approached
differently by Bosnia's major ethnic groups and was dependent on the
overall political atmosphere.[1] Although the initial split of the country into 33 oblasts erased the presence of traditional geographic entities from the map, the efforts of Bosnian politicians such as Mehmed Spaho
ensured that the six oblasts carved up from Bosnia and Herzegovina
corresponded to the six sanjaks from Ottoman times and, thus, matched
the country's traditional boundary as a whole.[1]The establishment of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929, however, brought the redrawing of administrative regions into banates that purposely avoided all historical and ethnic lines, removing any trace of a Bosnian entity.[1] Serbo-Croat tensions over the structuring of the Yugoslav state continued, with the concept of a separate Bosnian division receiving little or no consideration. The famous Cvetković-Maček agreement that created the Croatian banate in 1939 encouraged what was essentially a partition of Bosnia between Croatia and Serbia.[7] However, outside political circumstances forced Yugoslav politicians to shift their attention to the rising threat posed by Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany. Following a period that saw attempts at appeasement, the joining of the Tripartite Pact, and a coup d'état, Yugoslavia was finally invaded by Germany on 6 April 1941.[1]
World War II (1941–1945)
Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1941–1945)
Bosnia was the geographical mother of the partisan movement, providing ample space amongst its mountains for training and development.[9]Once the kingdom of Yugoslavia was conquered by Nazi forces in World War II, all of Bosnia was ceded to the Independent State of Croatia (NDH). The NDH rule over Bosnia led to widespread persecution and genocide. The Jewish population was nearly exterminated. Hundreds of thousands of Serbs died either in Ustaše concentration camps or in widespread mass killings by Ustaše militia. Many Serbs themselves took up arms and joined the Chetniks, a Serb nationalist movement with the aim of establishing an ethnically homogeneous 'Greater Serbian' state.[10] The Chetniks were responsible for widespread persecution and murder of non-Serbs and communist sympathizers, with the Muslim population of Bosnia, Herzegovina and Sandžak being a primary target.[11] Once captured, Muslim villages were systematically massacred by the Chetniks.[12] The total estimate of Muslims killed by Chetniks is between 80,000 and 100,000, most likely about 86,000 or 6.7 percent of their population (8.1 percent in Bosnia and Herzegovina alone).[13][14] Several Bosnian Muslim paramilitary units joined the NDH forces to counter their own persecution in the hands of the Serbs in Bosnia. On 12 October 1941 a group of 108 notable Muslim citizens of Sarajevo signed the Resolution of Sarajevo Muslims by which they condemned the persecution of Serbs organized by Ustaše, made distinction between Muslims who participated in such persecutions and the wider Muslim population, presented information about the persecutions of Muslims by Serbs and requested security for all citizens of the country, regardless of their identity.[15] According to the US Holocaust Museum, 320,000-340,000 ethnic Serbs were murdered.[16] According to the Yad Vashem Holocaust Museum and Research Center, "More than 500,000 Serbs were murdered in horribly sadistic ways, 250,000 were expelled, and another 200,000 were forced to convert" during WWII in the Independent State of Croatia (modern day Croatia and Bosnia).[17]
Starting in 1941, Yugoslav communists under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito organized their own multi-ethnic resistance group, the Partisans, who fought against Axis, Ustaše, and Chetnik forces. They too, committed numerous atrocities, mainly against political opponents of all ethnicities. Some Bosnian Muslims joined the SS Handschar division, an SS division of the Nazis that pledged allegiance to both Adolf Hitler and NDH leader, Ante Pavelić. The division was the first SS division which was constituted of non-Germans. On 25 November 1943 the Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia with Tito at its helm held a founding conference in Jajce where Bosnia and Herzegovina was reestablished as a republic within the Yugoslavian federation in its Ottoman borders. Military success eventually prompted the Allies to support the Partisans. On 6 April 1945 Sarajevo was captured by the Partisans. The end of the war resulted in the establishment of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, with the constitution of 1946 officially making Bosnia and Herzegovina one of six constituent republics in the new state.
Socialist Yugoslavia (1945–1992)
Coat of arms of the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Main article: History of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1945–1992)
Because of its central geographic position within the Yugoslavian
federation, post-war Bosnia was strategically selected as a base for the
development of the military defense industry. This contributed to a
large concentration of arms and military personnel in Bosnia, a
significant factor in the war that followed the breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s.[1]
However, Bosnia's existence within Yugoslavia was, for the most part,
peaceful and prosperous. While it was one of the poorer republics in the
early 1950s, Bosnia's economy recovered quickly, as its extensive
natural resources were exploited to stimulate industrial development.
The Yugoslavian communist doctrine of "brotherhood and unity"
particularly suited Bosnia's diverse and multi-ethnic society that,
because of such an imposed system of tolerance, thrived culturally and
socially.Though considered a political backwater of the federation for much of the 1950s and 1960s, the 1970s saw the ascension of a strong Bosnian political elite. While working within the communist system, politicians such as Džemal Bijedić, Branko Mikulić and Hamdija Pozderac reinforced and protected the sovereignty of Bosnia and Herzegovina [18] Their efforts proved key during the turbulent period following Tito's death in 1980, and are today considered some of the early steps towards Bosnian independence. However, the republic could not escape the increasingly nationalistic climate of the time unscathed. With the fall of communism and the start of the breakup of Yugoslavia, the old communist doctrine of tolerance began to lose its potency, creating an opportunity for nationalist elements in the society to spread their influence.
Bosnian War (1992–1995)
Main article: Bosnian War
Coat of arms of The Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina 1992–1998
While the first casualty of the war is debated, significant Serbian offensives began in March 1992 in Eastern and Northern Bosnia. Following a tense period of escalating tensions the opening shots in the incipient Bosnian conflict were fired when Serb paramilitary forces attacked Bosniak villages around Čapljina on 7 March 1992 and around Bosanski Brod and Goražde on 15 March. These minor attacks were followed by much more serious Serb artillery attacks on Neum on 19 March and on Bosanski Brod on 24 March. The killing of a Bosniak civilian woman on 5 April 1992 by a sniper, while she was demonstrating in Sarajevo against the raising of barricades by Bosnian Serbs, is widely regarded as marking the start of warfare between the three major communities.[19] Open warfare began in Sarajevo on 6 April.[1] International recognition of Bosnia and Herzegovina meant that the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) officially withdrew from the republic's territory, although their Bosnian Serb members merely joined the Army of Republika Srpska. Armed and equipped from JNA stockpiles in Bosnia, supported by volunteers, Republika Srpska's offensives in 1992 managed to place much of the country under its control.[1] By 1993, when an armed conflict erupted between the Sarajevo government and the Croat statelet of Herzeg-Bosnia, about 70% of the country was controlled by the Serbs.[5]
Flag of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina 1992–1998
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